All systems can be understood using an input-process-output (IPO) model, and the system we call “innovation” is no exception. This model is likely familiar to you from information technology ...

This paper presents a general model to assess the impact of data and process quality upon the outputs of multi-user information-decision systems. The data flow/data processing quality control model is ...

Technology license agreements as public–private partnerships for economic development: evaluations using surveys, input–output modeling, and regression analysis.

The model is a nonlinear version of the well-known linear input-output model of Leontief. Conditions are given for the nonlinear model to be workable in the sense that (i) there is a unique ...

By contrast, OpenAI's flagship reasoning model, o1 pro, costs $15 per million input tokens and $60 per million output tokens—significantly less than GPT-4.5 despite offering specialized ...